In the grand theater of world history, power is often depicted in familiar forms: the divine right of kings, the strategic genius of generals, or the sweeping influence of religious leaders. Yet, throughout millennia and across continents, a third, more enigmatic figure often stood just behind the throne, whispering in the emperor’s ear, controlling the flow of information, and wielding a power so immense it could build or break an empire. These were the court eunuchs.

Seen as sterile in body but not in ambition, eunuchs occupied a unique and paradoxical space in the royal court. Their inability to father children and establish their own rival dynasty made them appear trustworthy to paranoid rulers. This perceived loyalty, combined with unparalleled access to the sovereign’s private chambers, allowed them to become some of history’s most formidable political players. Let’s explore how these “servants of the palace” rose to become masters of the state in the Byzantine, Ottoman, and Ming empires.

The Byzantine Empire: From Chamberlains to Commanders

In the glittering, treacherous court of Constantinople, eunuchs were a permanent fixture. Continuing a Roman tradition, they were considered the ideal palace servants—loyal, educated, and posing no dynastic threat. The most powerful among them held the title of praepositus sacri cubiculi, or Grand Chamberlain, a position that controlled all access to the emperor.

Their power stemmed from this proximity. They were the emperor’s gatekeepers, schedulers, and often his closest confidantes. But Byzantine eunuchs were far more than glorified butlers. Many rose from slavery to become brilliant administrators, diplomats, and even military leaders, shattering all stereotypes.

Key Figures of Note:

• Eutropius (late 4th century): Beginning his career as a slave, Eutropius rose to become the chief advisor to Emperor Arcadius. He wielded such influence that he effectively ruled the Eastern Roman Empire for a time. In a move that scandalized the traditional Roman aristocracy, he had himself appointed consul, the highest honor in the state. His ambition ultimately led to his downfall and execution, but not before he proved that a eunuch could hold the empire’s reins.
• Narses (6th century): A court eunuch under the legendary Emperor Justinian I, Narses demonstrated that eunuchs could excel even on the battlefield. In his 70s, he was given command of the Byzantine army in Italy. A brilliant strategist, he decisively defeated the Ostrogoths and Lombards, successfully completing Justinian’s reconquest of the Italian peninsula. Narses governed Italy for over a decade, a testament to his dual talents as a general and an administrator.

In Byzantium, while the imperial throne was unattainable, eunuchs could aspire to almost any other office. Their influence was a direct result of imperial trust and their own, often formidable, competence.

The Ottoman Empire: Guardians of the Harem and the State

Journeying eastward to the opulent Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, we find a highly structured and institutionalized form of eunuch power. The Ottoman court was divided into the outer palace (where state business was conducted) and the inner palace, which included the Imperial Harem—the private domain of the sultan, his mother, his wives, and his children.

Two figures dominated the eunuch hierarchy:

1. The Kapi Agha (Chief White Eunuch): Head of the inner palace service, the Kapi Agha controlled the palace school where future administrators were trained. He was the primary liaison between the sultan and the world outside the palace, making him a crucial channel for petitions and information.
2. The Kizlar Agha (Chief Black Eunuch): Initially subordinate to the Kapi Agha, the Kizlar Agha’s power surged with the growing influence of the Imperial Harem. As the guard of the Harem, he had intimate access to the most powerful women in the empire, particularly the Sultan’s mother (the Valide Sultan). He managed the vast wealth of the imperial family and the lucrative religious endowments (*waqfs*), giving him immense financial leverage. By the 17th century, the Kizlar Agha had become one of the most powerful officials in the empire, often influencing the appointment of Grand Viziers and military commanders.

The power of the Ottoman eunuchs was one of covert influence. They were masters of palace intrigue, forming powerful alliances with the women of the “Sultanate of Women.” For example, Haci Beşir Ağa served as Kizlar Agha for nearly 30 years in the early 18th century, becoming a dominant political force, a patron of architecture, and a kingmaker who operated from the shadows of the Harem.

Ming China: A Shadow Government of Terrifying Power

Perhaps nowhere in history did eunuch power reach such a terrifying apex as in Ming China (1368-1644). The dynasty’s founder, the Hongwu Emperor, was wary of eunuchs and forbade them from interfering in politics. His successors, however, saw them as a vital tool to enforce their absolute authority.

Ming emperors used eunuchs to counterbalance the powerful, Confucian-trained scholar-bureaucrats who often sought to limit imperial power. To do this, they gave their eunuchs unprecedented and frightening authority. This “shadow government” operated through several key institutions:

• The Secret Police: Eunuchs were put in charge of covert agencies like the Eastern Depot and Western Depot. These secret police forces had the authority to spy on, arrest, torture, and execute any subject, including the highest-ranking officials, entirely outside the formal judicial system.
• Military and Financial Authority: Emperors dispatched trusted eunuchs as army commanders and as special commissioners to collect taxes and manage state monopolies, giving them direct control over the empire’s military and financial arteries.

This system produced two vastly different, but equally famous, eunuchs:

• Zheng He (early 15th century): A towering figure in every sense, the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He was chosen by the Yongle Emperor to lead seven epic treasure voyages across the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as Africa. Commanding massive fleets and thousands of men, Zheng He projected Ming power across the known world, proving that a eunuch’s ambition could be global in scale.
• Wei Zhongxian (early 17th century): At the opposite end of the spectrum was Wei Zhongxian, often considered the most corrupt and tyrannical eunuch in Chinese history. During the reign of the neglectful Tianqi Emperor, Wei established a complete stranglehold on the government. He ruthlessly purged his political enemies, filled the bureaucracy with his cronies, and fostered a personality cult so extreme that temples were built in his honor. His reign of terror and rampant corruption are widely seen as a critical factor in the weakening and eventual collapse of the Ming Dynasty.

The Third Gender of Power

The stories of the eunuchs of the Byzantine, Ottoman, and Ming courts are a powerful lesson in the fluid nature of political authority. Whether as competent administrators and generals in Constantinople, as gatekeepers of the Harem in Istanbul, or as the emperor’s ruthless enforcers in Beijing, they found ways to convert their unique social status into hard political power.

The central irony is that the very quality that made them seem “safe”—their inability to produce heirs—is what gave them the access and trust needed to accumulate influence. In a world defined by bloodlines and dynasties, they were a political third gender, unencumbered by familial loyalties and free to pursue a different kind of ambition. They were the servants who became masters, the shadows who ruled empires, and a stark reminder that in the corridors of power, influence often flows from the most unexpected sources.